Convex representation of objects using neural network

ABSTRACT

Methods, systems, and apparatus including computer programs encoded on a computer storage medium, for generating convex decomposition of objects using neural network models. One of the methods includes receiving an input that depicts an object. The input is processed using a neural network to generate an output that defines a convex representation of the object. The output includes, for each of a plurality of convex elements, respective parameters that define a position of the convex element in the convex representation of the object.

BACKGROUND

This specification generally relates to convex representation ofobjects.

Conventionally, there are several methods to represent objects.Three-dimensional (3D) objects can be represented in voxel grids, butthis method may be unsuitable for high resolution representations due tohigh memory requirement. Polygonal meshes can be used to represent 3Dobjects in computer graphics. Point clouds can represent surfaces of 3Dobjects, especially if information of an object is acquired usingsensors such as depth cameras or LiDar sensors.

Neural networks are machine learning models that employ one or morelayers of nonlinear units to predict an output for a received input.Some neural networks include one or more hidden layers in addition to anoutput layer. The output of each hidden layer is used as an input to thenext layer in the network, i.e., the next hidden layer or the outputlayer. Each layer of the network generates an output from a receivedinput in accordance with current values of a respective set ofparameters.

SUMMARY

This specification describes technologies for generating convexdecomposition of objects using neural network models.

In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described inthis specification can be embodied in methods that include the actionsof receiving an input that depicts an object; and processing the inputusing a neural network to generate an output that defines a convexrepresentation of the object, wherein the output comprises, for each ofa plurality of convex elements, respective parameters that define aposition of the convex element in the convex representation of theobject. Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computersystems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or morecomputer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of themethods. For a system of one or more computers to be configured toperform particular operations or actions means that the system hasinstalled on its software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of themthat in operation cause the system to perform the operations or actions.For one or more computer programs to be configured to perform particularoperations or actions means that the one or more programs includeinstructions that, when executed by a data processing apparatus, causethe apparatus to perform the operations or actions.

In general, another innovative aspect of the subject matter described inthis specification can be embodied in a method of training a neuralnetwork that receives an input that depicts an object and processes theinput to generate an output that defines a convex representation of theobject, wherein the output comprises, for each of a plurality of convexelements, respective parameters that define a position of the convexelement in the convex representation of the object. The method includesthe actions of receiving a training input that depicts an object;processing the training input using the neural network to generate atraining output that defines a convex representation of the object;sampling a plurality of points on the training input; for each sampledpoint, generating a ground truth indicator value using the traininginput, and a training indicator value using the convex representation ofthe object, wherein the ground truth indicator value determines whetherthe sampled point lies inside the object, and wherein the trainingindicator value determines whether the sampled point lies inside theconvex representation of the object; and determining an update to valuesof parameters of the neural network by minimizing a loss function thatdepends on a distance between the ground truth indicator value and thetraining indicator value. Other embodiments of this aspect includecorresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programsrecorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured toperform the actions of the methods. For a system of one or morecomputers to be configured to perform particular operations or actionsmeans that the system has installed on its software, firmware, hardware,or a combination of them that in operation cause the system to performthe operations or actions. For one or more computer programs to beconfigured to perform particular operations or actions means that theone or more programs include instructions that, when executed by a dataprocessing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the operations oractions.

The subject matter described in this specification can be implemented inparticular embodiments so as to realize one or more of the followingadvantages. An object can be represented using a small number of convexelements that are generated using a neural network. Each convex elementis defined by a collection of half-space constraints. Thisrepresentation is a low-dimensional convex decomposition representationthat can be automatically inferred from the input object, without anyhuman supervision. The neural network can be trained in aself-supervised manner, by checking whether the reconstructed geometrymatches the geometry of the object. This convex representation can betrained on a shape collection and can result in convex elements thathave a semantic association, e.g., the same elements are used torepresent the same parts of objects. Each of the convex elements is notrestricted to belong to a specific class of shapes, e.g., boxes,ellipsoids, sphere-meshes, but to the more general class of convexes.

Because each convex element is defined by a collection of half-spaceconstraints, the convex representation can be decoded into an explicitrepresentation, e.g., polygonal mesh, as well as an implicitrepresentation, e.g., analytic surfaces and implicit indicatorfunctions. Therefore, a polygonal mesh representation can be directlygenerated from the output of the neural network. Traditional methodsrequire a conversion of an implicit function to a mesh representation,which requires execution of iso-surfacing algorithms (e.g., marchingcubes). The execution of iso-surfacing algorithms can be slow andnon-scalable and is not suitable for real-time applications. Comparedwith the traditional methods, the subject matter described can generatea polygonal mesh representation much faster and in a scalable fashion,and is much more suitable for real-time applications.

In many computer graphics pipelines, e.g., physics simulations,computing a convex decomposition can be a necessary task that istraditionally done either by hand, i.e., by an artist, or withcomputationally intensive routines which can take seconds to generateone decomposition. The subject matter described can efficiently providea convex decomposition as the output of the neural network, withoutrequiring post-processing.

The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of thisspecification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and thedescription below. Other features, aspects, and advantages of thesubject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings,and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an example system that generates convex representation ofan object.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example architecture of a convex decompositionneural network for generating a convex representation of an object.

FIG. 3 is a flowchart of an example process for generating a convexrepresentation of an object.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart of an example process for training a neuralnetwork that can generate a convex representation of an object.

Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicatelike elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 shows an example system 100 that generates convex representationof an object. The system 100 is an example of a system implemented ascomputer programs on one or more computers in one or more locations, inwhich the systems, components, and techniques described below can beimplemented.

The system 100 receives an input 102 that depicts an object 101. Theinput can be a representation of the object in any format, e.g., animage, point cloud, or voxel grid, that describes shape information ofan object. The object can be a two-dimensional (2D) object or athree-dimensional (3D) object. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, theinput 102 is an image of a 3D object, i.e., an airplane 101. In someapplications, the input object can be various types of chairs, cars,persons, animals, etc., and any other 2D or 3D objects.

A convex decomposition neural network (CvxNet) 104 processes the input102 and generates a convex decomposition 106 of the object 101 depictedin the input 102. In general, a complex object can be partitioned intopieces that are easier for subsequent processing. The convexdecomposition, i.e., convex representation, of the object can includepieces that have convex shapes. These convex pieces can also be calledconvex elements. The convex decomposition of the object can approximatethe geometry of the object by using a plurality of convex elements.

The neural network 104 is a neural network that is trained to output aconvex decomposition of an object depicted in the input.

For example, the neural network 104 can be a neural network with anencoder-decoder architecture. The encoder-decoder architecture can beconfigured to generate a plurality of convex elements to approximate theinput object 101. The architecture of the convex decomposition neuralnetwork 104 is described in more detail below with reference to FIG. 2.

In more detail, the output of the neural network 104 defines a convexdecomposition 106 of the object 101 in the input 102. Generally, anobject can be represented by, i.e., decomposed into, a collection ofconvex elements. A convex element has a convex shape and is anapproximation to a part of the object. When a small number of convexelements are used, such a representation can be a piecewiseapproximation of the object. This representation is important toreal-time computer graphics applications (e.g., physics simulation)because the convex representation can create a unified representation ofdynamic geometries of different objects.

The convex decomposition 106 includes a plurality of convex elementsthat can approximate the shape of the 2D or 3D object. The total numberof convex elements can be a predetermined number or can be a number thatis determined by the neural network. For example, as shown in anexploded view in FIG. 1, the convex decomposition 106 of the airplane101 includes eleven convex elements 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,117, 118, 119 and 120. Each convex element corresponds to a part of theairplane. For example, convex elements 113 and 114 can represent theleft wing of the airplane, and convex elements 115 and 116 can representthe right wing of the airplane.

The neural network 104 can be configured to generate parameters thatdefine a position of the convex element in the convex representation ofthe object. The total number of parameters that define the position ofthe convex element can be a predetermined number or can be a number thatis determined by the neural network. For example, the neural network 104can be configured to generate pose parameters that define that theposition of the convex element 110 is at the foremost location in thefront, such that the convex element 110 can represent the front of theairplane.

In some implementations, the neural network 104 can be configured togenerate parameters that define a shape of the convex element. Forexample, the neural network 104 can be configured to generate parametersthat define a cylindrical shape of the convex element 111 such that theconvex element 111 can approximate the mid-body of the airplane 101.

In some implementations, each of the convex elements can be defined by aplurality of halfspaces. The neural network can be configured togenerate a predetermined number of halfspaces. In more detail, theneural network can be configured to generate parameters that define thehalfspace, e.g., a normal parameter and an offset parameter. Forexample, three oriented straight lines, each of which defines ahalfspace in 2D, can define a triangle shaped convex element.

The neural network 104 can be configured to generate a large number ofhalfspaces. Therefore, each of the convex elements is not restricted tobelong to a specific class of shapes, e.g., boxes, ellipsoids,sphere-meshes, but to the more general class of convexes. In otherwords, the generated convex elements can be different from each other.Each convex element can be any convex shape that can provide anapproximation to a part of the object. For example, the eleven convexelements 110 to 120 have shapes that are different from each other, andeach convex element can represent a part of the airplane that has aunique shape.

Using the neural network 104, a shape of the airplane 101 can berepresented by a small number of convex elements, allowing alow-dimensional representation to be automatically inferred from theinput image, without any human supervision.

The convex decomposition 106 can be used for downstream applications,such as physical simulation, surface reconstruction, etc. For example,the generated convex decomposition can be used in real-time physicalsimulations, such as simulating a process when an object is fallingunder gravity, or simulating a process and a result of collisionsbetween two or more objects, etc. Examples of other applications thatcan use a convex decomposition of an object can include automatic convexdecomposition of complex objects, image to 3D reconstruction, part-basedshape retrieval, and so on.

For example, a real-time collision simulation 109 can simulate ascenario when hundreds of airplanes drop from the sky to the ground andcollide with each other. Each airplane in the collision simulation 109can be represented as a small number of convex elements, similar to theconvex decomposition 106 of the airplane 101. Because an airplanegeometry of each airplane object has been decomposed into a small numberof convex elements, the collision simulation 109 can be efficientlycalculated by computing the collision behavior of the convex elementsusing physics engines.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example architecture of a convex decompositionneural network 200 that can be used to generate a convex representationof an object. The convex decomposition neural network takes an inputthat depicts an object, processes the input, and generates an outputthat defines a convex representation of the object. The convexrepresentation can approximate the object as a composition of convexelements.

The network 200 takes an input that depicts an object. The object can bea 2D object or a 3D object of any arbitrary shape that is either convexor concave. For example, the 2D binary image 202 illustrates thegeometry of a 2D object 201 with a shape like the letter “X”. The “X”shaped object 201 can be represented in black color on a whitebackground in a 2D input image. The “X” shaped object 201 has anon-convex shape. In real-life, many objects are non-convex, such as theshapes of an animal, a person, a desk, a truck, etc. The example object201 in FIG. 2 is a simplified example used to illustrate decomposingnon-convex objects into convex elements by the network 200.

The input can be a representation of the object in any format. In someimplementations, the input can be a voxel grid representation of anobject. In some implementations, the input can be a point cloudrepresentation of an object captured by one or more sensors, such asdepth cameras or LiDar sensors.

The network 200 can include an encoder-decoder neural network 204 thattakes the input 202 and outputs a plurality of parameters 210 thatdefine a convex representation of the object 201 in the input 202.Encoder-decoder is a type of neural network used to learn efficientencoded representation of an input via dimensionality reduction. Anencoder-decoder architecture includes two parts: an encoder that maps aninput into an encoded representation, and a decoder that maps theencoded representation to a desired output that is related to the input.The encoder-decoder neural network 204 can include an encoder neuralnetwork 206 and a decoder neural network 208.

The encoder neural network 206 can be configured to receive an input 202and to generate a low-dimensional latent representation 207 of theinput. The latent representation 207 can be a set of features thatrepresent properties of the input in a latent space, a feature spacethat is different from the image space in the input image 202. Thelatent representation 207 can be low-dimensional because the set offeatures is a more abstract and compact representation of the objectdepicted in the input.

For example, the encoder 206 can perform feature encoding from an inputand can compute derived values, i.e., a set of features, intended to beinformative about properties of the input. Given an input image 202, theencoder 206 can calculate a latent space representation 207, i.e., a setof features, that represent the “X” shape of the input. In this way, theencoder maps the “X” shaped object to a latent space, representing theinput image with a low-dimensional representation.

The encoder 206 can be a convolutional neural network (CNN) thatincludes a plurality of convolutional layers. In some implementations,the encoder 206 can use a ResNet style CNN (He, Kaiming, et al. “Deepresidual learning for image recognition.” Proceedings of the IEEEconference on computer vision and pattern recognition. 2016). Forexample, the encoder 206 can use ResNet18 which has 18 convolutionallayers and fully connected layers. The fully connected layers can beconfigured to generate a latent representation 207, with a set offeatures of 1×256 dimensions.

The decoder neural network 208 can be configured to generate, from thelatent representation 207, an output that defines a convexrepresentation of the object 201 that includes a plurality of convexelements. In some implementations, the decoder 208 can take thelow-dimensional latent representation 207 of the object as an input andcan generate a plurality of parameters 210 that define a convexrepresentation of the object 201. The parameters 210 are generated froma plurality of output layers of the decoder neural network 208.

The convex representation of the input object can include an indicatorfunction. An indicator function is defined to indicate whether a pointis inside an object or outside an object. During training, random samplepoints can be evaluated using the indicator function, and an evaluationresult can be compared with the input object such that the convexdecomposition is an approximation to the input object. The indicatorfunction representation is a differentiable convex decomposition, andcan be calculated using a neural network, e.g., an encoder-decoderneural network that is trained in an end-to-end fashion.

For example, an indicator function O(x) can be defined to satisfy that{x∈R³|O(x)=0} defines the outside of an object, and {x∈R³|O(x)=1}defines the inside of the object, and 00={x∈R³|O(x)=0.5} indicates thesurface of the object. Given an input, e.g., an image, point cloud, orvoxel grid, a network 200 can be configured to estimate the parametersof a predicted indicator function Ô(⋅) with K convex elements indexed byk. During training, the predicted indicator function Ô(⋅) can beevaluated at randomly sampled points x. Each randomly sampled point canbe inside the object or outside the object. A training loss can measurethe difference between a predicted indicator value Ô(x) and aground-truth indicator value O(x). This training loss can ensure theconvex decomposition is a good approximation of the input object, i.e.,Ô(x)≈O(x).

A convex representation of the object can include a plurality of convexelements. Each convex element can be represented by an indicatorfunction. The indicator function of the object can be formulated by aplurality of indicator functions 212 for the plurality of convexelements 214.

For example, a heat map plot 216 shows an indicator function of an “X”shaped reconstructed object obtained by a convex deposition. The heatmap plot 216 shows regions that are inside 218 the “X” shapedreconstructed object and regions that are outside 219 the “X” shapedreconstructed object, and a transition band around the boundary of the“X” shaped reconstructed object. Accordingly, for each convex element, aheat map plot (one of 220, 222, 224 and 226) of an indicator functioncorresponding to a convex element shows inside regions and outsideregions.

An indicator function of an object can be a mathematical function of theindicator functions of the convex elements. For example, an indicatorfunction of an object can be formulated asÔ(x)=max_(k) {C _(k)(x)},  (1)and C_(k)(x)=C(T_(k)(x)|β_(k)) is an indicator function of the k-thconvex element. The application of the max operator can produce a unionof all the indicator functions for all the K convex elements.

An indicator function of a convex element can be defined by a set ofparameters. The decoder 208 can be configured to generate a collectionof K sets of parameters 210 for K convex elements 214. The total numberof convex elements K can be predetermined or can be determined by theneural network. Each set of parameters can include a shape parameterβ_(k) and a pose parameter T_(k). The shape parameter β_(k) and the poseparameter T_(k) can define an indicator function 212 of a convexelement.

For example, the convex representation of the “X” shaped object 201 caninclude four convex elements shown as four heat map plots 220, 222, 224and 226. The neural network 200 can be configured to represent the “X”shaped object 201 by using K convex elements, where K=4. The parameters210 includes K sets of parameters {(β₁, T₁), (β₂, T₂), (β₃, T₃), . . . ,(β_(K), T_(K))}. Each set of parameters (β_(k), T_(k)) defines thecorresponding k-th convex element using an indicator functionC(T_(k)(x)|β_(k)).

The shape parameter β_(k) can include parameters that define a shape ofeach convex element. The shape of each convex element can be defined bya plurality of halfspaces. Generally, a large set of halfspaces canrepresent any convex element. The neural network 200 can be configuredto define a shape of each convex element using H halfspaces.

Each halfspace can be defined by a normal parameter n_(h) and an offsetparameter d_(h), where h indicates that the halfspace is the h-thhalfspace among a set of halfspaces. For example, for a halfspace in 2D,i.e., a straight line, the normal parameter can be related to the slopeor the gradient of the line, and the offset parameter can be related tothe y-intercept of the line. The shape parameter β_(k) can include acollection of halfspace parameters for all H halfspaces that defines theshape of the k-th convex element.

A signed distance from a point x to the h-th halfspace can be definedas:H _(h) =n _(h) ·x+d _(h).  (2)Given a large number of H halfspaces, the signed distance function ofany convex element can be approximated by taking the intersection of thesigned distance functions of the halfspaces.

Given a collection of halfspace parameters, an indicator function of aconvex element can be formulated. The indicator function of a convexelement is differentiable and can be evaluated at any position x.

For example, an indicator function of a convex element can beC(β)=Sigmoid(−σ(x))  (3)and (x)=Log SumExp{δH_(h)(x)} is an approximate signed distancefunction.Log SumExp(⋅), also can be called softmax function, is a smooth maximumfunction and is used here to facilitate gradient learning. Sigmoid(⋅) isa Sigmoid function having an “S” shaped curve, taking all real numbersas an input, returning values between 0 and 1. The soft classificationboundary created by the Sigmoid function can help gradient learning. Theparameter δ can control the smoothness of the generated convex and thehyper-parameter σ can control the sharpness of the transition of theindicator function. For example, the hyper-parameter σ can be equal to75. The indicator function in (3) can generate a smooth reconstructionof an object.

In some implementations, a convex decomposition of an input object canbe generated to reconstruct and recover sharp geometric features of theinput object. For example, it may be desirable to represent the sharpedge of a table using convex elements that have sharp edges. Therefore,the indicator function of the object can use a low-poly reconstructionof the object with sharp features, such as using a small number ofpolygons.

For example, to group H halfspaces into a polygonal convex element, anindicator function of the j-th convex element in a set of convexelements can beC _(k)*(x)=(H _(h) M _(hk))  (4)and H_(h) is a signed distance from a point x to the h-th halfspace andM_(hk) is an element of a binary matrix M that aggregates halfspacesinto convex elements. Here, instead of using a Log SumExp(⋅) function, amax function is used in order to reconstruct sharp features of the inputobject.

The pose parameter T_(k) can include parameters that define the pose ofeach convex element using an affine transformation, e.g., a translation,and/or a rotation of each convex element, etc. For example, for the k-thconvex element, a translationT_(k)(x)=x+c_(k) can transform a point xfrom world coordinates to local coordinates of the k-th convex element.The pose parameter T_(k) can include c_(k) which is a predictedtranslation vector generated by the network 200.

For example, the first convex element shown in a heat map plot 220 canrepresent a lower right part of the “X” shaped object 201. The origin ofthe local coordinates of a convex element shown in the heat map plot 220is different from the origin of the world coordinate of the entireobject 201. With the pose parameter T_(k), a translationT_(k)(x)=x+c_(k)can transform a point x from world coordinate to local coordinates ofthe convex element shown in the heat map plot 220.

Given the shape parameter β_(k) and the pose parameter T_(k), anindicator function 212 of the k-th convex element can be formulated asC(T_(k)(x)|β_(k)).

The decoder neural network 208 can be a convolutional neural networkthat includes a plurality of convolutional layers, deconvolutionallayers and fully connected layers. For example, for a 3D object, anindicator function of the object Ô(⋅) can include K=50 convex elements,and each convex element can include H=50 halfspaces. The decoder 208 canuse a sequential model with four fully connected layers with (1024,1024, 2048, |H|) units respectively. An output dimension of the decoderneural network 208 can be |H|=K(4+3H). For each of the K convexelements, the respective output parameters can include a translationparameter (3 values in x, y, z) and a smoothness parameter δ. Eachhalfspace can be specified by a unit normal parameter and an offsetparameter from the origin.

The indicator functions 212 defined by the output parameters 210 fromthe decoder neural network 208 can be used differently during trainingof the neural network 200 and during a convex decomposition process.During a convex decomposition process, the indicator functions can beused to reconstruct an object and are usable in applications thatrequire a polygonal representation of the object. When training theneural network 200, a training engine can train the encoder neuralnetwork and the decoder neural network end-to-end to minimize a lossfunction that measures how well the indicator functions 212 approximatea ground-truth indicator function of the input object 201.

FIG. 3 is a flowchart of an example process 300 for generating a convexrepresentation of an object. For convenience, the process 300 will bedescribed as being performed by a system of one or more computerslocated in one or more locations. For example, the system 100 of FIG. 1,appropriately programmed in accordance with this specification, canperform the process 300.

The system receives an input that depicts an object (302). The input canbe a representation of the object in any format, e.g., an image of theobject, a point cloud of the object, a voxel grid of the object, etc.The object can be a generic non-convex object, and the shape of theobject is depicted in the input.

The system processes the input using a neural network to generate anoutput that defines a convex representation of the object (304). Theconvex representation of the object can include a plurality of convexelements. The system can generate parameters that define a position of aconvex element in the convex representation of the object.

In some implementations, the neural network can have an encoder-decoderarchitecture that includes an encoder neural network and a decoderneural network. The encoder neural network can be configured to receivethe input and to generate a low-dimensional latent representation of theinput. The decoder neural network can be configured to generate, fromthe low-dimensional latent representation of the input, an output thatdefines the convex representation of the object.

In some implementations, the output that defines a convex representationof the object can include parameters of a predicted indicator functionof the object. An indicator function can define an inside region of theobject and an outside region of the object.

A generic non-convex object can be represented as compositions of convexelements. To achieve this task, the system can use the encoder neuralnetwork to generate a low-dimensional latent representation of all Kconvex elements, and the system can use the decoder neural network toprocess the latent representation and can generate K sets of parameters.

In some implementations, the system can configure the decoder neuralnetwork to generate parameters that define an indicator function of aconvex element. Each set of parameters representing a convex element caninclude a predetermined number of shape parameters and a predeterminednumber of pose parameters that can define an indicator function of aconvex element.

In some implementations, the shape of a convex element can be defined bya predetermined number of halfspaces. The system can configure thedecoder neural network to generate a plurality of sets of parameters forthe predetermined number of halfspaces. In some implementations, eachset of parameters can include a normal parameter and an offset parameterthat define a halfspace. The normal parameter and the offset parameterof the halfspace can define a signed distance function that measuresdistance from a point to the halfspace.

In some implementations, the system can configure the encoder-decoderneural network to generate parameters that define a predetermined numberof convex elements. The system can generate a convex representation ofthe object using the convex elements defined by the parameters generatedfrom the encoder-decoder neural network.

The convex representation can be a low-dimensional representation thatincludes a small number of convex elements. The convex representationcan be automatically inferred from an input, without any humansupervision. Each of the convex elements can be a general class ofconvexes with any shape, without being restricted to belong to a certainclass, such as boxes, ellipsoids, or sphere-meshes, etc.

In some implementations, the system can use the convex representation ofthe object in real-time computer graphics applications (306) where anexplicit representation of a surface is required. Examples of real-timecomputer graphics applications can include 3D reconstruction, part-basedshape retrieval, collision simulation, etc.

In some implementations, the system can process the convex decompositionand generate an explicit representation of the object, such as apolygonal mesh. For example, the system can derive a polygonal mesh bycomputing the vertices of a convex hull of points that are generatedfrom the halfspaces. The convex-hull can be used by physical engines tosimulate animations of a movement of one or more objects.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart of an example process 400 for training a neuralnetwork that can generate a convex representation of an object. Forconvenience, the process 400 will be described as being performed by asystem of one or more computers located in one or more locations. Forexample, the system 100 of FIG. 1, appropriately programmed inaccordance with this specification, can perform the process 400. Thetraining process is in a self-supervised manner and can predict shapesof convex elements as well as their poses and locations by checkingwhether a reconstructed geometry matches a geometry of a target object.

The system receives a training input that depicts an object (402). Thetraining input can be one of an image of the object, a point cloud ofthe object, or a voxel grid of the object. The object can be a genericnon-convex object, and the shape of the object is depicted in the input.In some implementations, the training input can include a plurality ofrepresentations for a plurality of objects. These objects can belong todifferent object classes and can be jointly used to train the neuralnetwork. For example, the training input can include images of chairs,desks, airplanes, cars, etc.

The system processes the training input using a neural network togenerate a training output that defines a convex representation of theobject (404). A convex representation of the object can include aplurality of convex elements. In some implementations, each convexelement can be defined by a plurality of halfspaces.

In some implementations, the training output can include parameters thatdefine a training indicator function of the object. Given a point x, thetraining indicator function can calculate a training indicator valueindicating whether the point x is inside a convex representation oroutside a convex representation. The training indicator function is animplicit representation and can be defined by a signed distance functionof a plurality of halfspaces. This implicit representation can be adifferentiable convex decomposition and can be used for neural networktraining.

The system samples a plurality of points on the training input (406).The system can sample the plurality of points uniformly on the traininginput, or randomly on the training input. In a 2D example, the pluralityof points can be sampled randomly on pixels of an input image. For 3Dobjects, the samples can be obtained randomly in the 3D object in a 3Dspace. The sampled points can include points that are inside the object,outside the object, or on the boundary of the object.

For each sampled point, the system generates a ground truth indicatorvalue using the training input, and a training indicator value using theconvex representation of the object (408).

The ground truth indicator value can represent whether a sampled pointis inside or outside the object. For example, a ground truth indicatorvalue can be a binary value, with 0 indicating the point is outside theobject, and 1 indicating the point is inside the object. For a binaryimage, such as the image 202 in FIG. 2, the ground truth value of asample point can be the pixel value of a pixel that corresponds to thesampled point.

In some implementations, the system can sample a set of points on thetraining input offline, and can precompute a ground truth indicatorvalue that indicates whether the point is inside the object, and canthen randomly subsample from this set during training. This method cangreatly speed-up the training process.

The training indicator value can represent whether a sampled point isinside or outside the convex representation of the object defined by anoutput of the neural network. For example, a training indicator valuecan be calculated using an indicator function of the object defined bythe output parameters. In some implementations, the training indicatorvalue can be a number that is between 0 and 1.

The system determines an update to the values of the parameters of theneural network by minimizing a loss function (410). The loss functioncan be defined based on a distance between the ground truth indicatorvalue and the training indicator value calculated from the sampledpoints.

The system can use a loss function that encourages good approximationbetween an object and a convex decomposition of the object. For example,a ground truth indicator value of a sampled point x can be O(x), and atraining indicator value of the sampled point x can be Ô(x). Thetraining loss function that measures a distance between the ground truthindicator value and the training indicator value can be formulated as anapproximation loss:L _(approx)(ω)=E _(x˜R) ₃ ∥Ô(x)−O(x)∥².  (5)where ω are the parameters of the neural network.

The system can train the convex decomposition neural network model todetermine trained values of the parameters of the neural network frominitial values of the parameters by repeatedly performing a neuralnetwork training procedure. The neural network training procedure cancompute a gradient of the loss function with respect to the parametersof the neural network model, e.g., using backpropagation, and candetermine updates to the parameters from the gradient, e.g., using theupdate rule corresponding to the neural network training procedure.

In some implementations, in addition to the approximation loss, thesystem can use one or more other auxiliary losses that enforce thedesired properties of the resulting convex decomposition.

In some implementations, the system can use a loss function that furtherincludes a decomposition loss that measures an overlap between aplurality of convex elements. The overlap between convex elements, e.g.,the region 215 in FIG. 2 should be discouraged in order to generate asimple and clean convex decomposition. Minimizing the decomposition losscan reduce the amount of overlap between convex elements.

In some implementations, the system can use a loss function that furtherincludes a unique parameterization loss. While each convex element canbe parameterized with respect to the origin, there can be multiplesolutions that correspond to the same convex decomposition, which arealso called “null-space” of solutions. For example, the system cangenerate a null-space solution by moving the origin to another locationwithin a convex, and then updating the offsets d_(h) and transformationT accordingly. To remove such null-space of solutions, the system canuse a unique parameterization loss to limit and regularize themagnitudes of the offsets for each of the H halfspaces that defines eachof the K convex elements.

In some implementations, the system can use a loss function that furtherincludes a guidance loss. A guidance loss can ensure that each convexelement is responsible for representing a certain amount of interiorsamples and can help the convergence of the training process. Forexample, the guidance loss can ensure that each convex element isresponsible for representing at least the N closest interior samples.

The system can use a group of appropriate hyper-parameters andoptimization methods to determine an update to the values of theparameters of the neural network. For example, the system can use abatch size of 32 and Adam optimization with a learning rate of 0.0001,β₁=0.9, and β₂=0.999. The loss function can be a weighted sum of severalkinds of losses. For example, the weights for the approximation loss,the decomposition loss, the unique parameterization loss, and theguidance loss can be 1.0, 0.1, 0.001, and 0.01, respectively.

This specification uses the term “configured” in connection with systemsand computer program components. For a system of one or more computersto be configured to perform particular operations or actions means thatthe system has installed on its software, firmware, hardware, or acombination of them that in operation cause the system to perform theoperations or actions. For one or more computer programs to beconfigured to perform particular operations or actions means that theone or more programs include instructions that, when executed by a dataprocessing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the operations oractions.

Embodiments of the subject matter and the functional operationsdescribed in this specification can be implemented in digital electroniccircuitry, in tangibly-embodied computer software or firmware, incomputer hardware, including the structures disclosed in thisspecification and their structural equivalents, or in combinations ofone or more of them. Embodiments of the subject matter described in thisspecification can be implemented as one or more computer programs, i.e.,one or more modules of computer program instructions encoded on atangible non transitory storage medium for execution by, or to controlthe operation of, data processing apparatus. The computer storage mediumcan be a machine-readable storage device, a machine-readable storagesubstrate, a random or serial access memory device, or a combination ofone or more of them. Alternatively or in addition, the programinstructions can be encoded on an artificially generated propagatedsignal, e.g., a machine-generated electrical, optical, orelectromagnetic signal, that is generated to encode information fortransmission to suitable receiver apparatus for execution by a dataprocessing apparatus.

The term “data processing apparatus” refers to data processing hardwareand encompasses all kinds of apparatus, devices, and machines forprocessing data, including by way of example a programmable processor, acomputer, or multiple processors or computers. The apparatus can alsobe, or further include, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA(field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application specificintegrated circuit). The apparatus can optionally include, in additionto hardware, code that creates an execution environment for computerprograms, e.g., code that constitutes processor firmware, a protocolstack, a database management system, an operating system, or acombination of one or more of them.

A computer program, which may also be referred to or described as aprogram, software, a software application, an app, a module, a softwaremodule, a script, or code, can be written in any form of programminglanguage, including compiled or interpreted languages, or declarative orprocedural languages; and it can be deployed in any form, including as astandalone program or as a module, component, subroutine, or other unitsuitable for use in a computing environment. A program may, but neednot, correspond to a file in a file system. A program can be stored in aportion of a file that holds other programs or data, e.g., one or morescripts stored in a markup language document, in a single file dedicatedto the program in question, or in multiple coordinated files, e.g.,files that store one or more modules, sub programs, or portions of code.A computer program can be deployed to be executed on one computer or onmultiple computers that are located at one site or distributed acrossmultiple sites and interconnected by a data communication network.

In this specification, the term “database” is used broadly to refer toany collection of data: the data does not need to be structured in anyparticular way, or structured at all, and it can be stored on storagedevices in one or more locations. Thus, for example, the index databasecan include multiple collections of data, each of which may be organizedand accessed differently.

Similarly, in this specification the term “engine” is used broadly torefer to a software-based system, subsystem, or process that isprogrammed to perform one or more specific functions. Generally, anengine will be implemented as one or more software modules orcomponents, installed on one or more computers in one or more locations.In some cases, one or more computers will be dedicated to a particularengine; in other cases, multiple engines can be installed and running onthe same computer or computers.

The processes and logic flows described in this specification can beperformed by one or more programmable computers executing one or morecomputer programs to perform functions by operating on input data andgenerating output. The processes and logic flows can also be performedby special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA or an ASIC, or by acombination of special purpose logic circuitry and one or moreprogrammed computers.

Computers suitable for the execution of a computer program can be basedon general or special purpose microprocessors or both, or any other kindof central processing unit. Generally, a central processing unit willreceive instructions and data from a read only memory or a random accessmemory or both. The essential elements of a computer are a centralprocessing unit for performing or executing instructions and one or morememory devices for storing instructions and data. The central processingunit and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in, specialpurpose logic circuitry. Generally, a computer will also include, or beoperatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both,one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic,magneto optical disks, or optical disks. However, a computer need nothave such devices. Moreover, a computer can be embedded in anotherdevice, e.g., a mobile telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), amobile audio or video player, a game console, a Global PositioningSystem (GPS) receiver, or a portable storage device, e.g., a universalserial bus (USB) flash drive, to name just a few.

Computer readable media suitable for storing computer programinstructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory, mediaand memory devices, including by way of example semiconductor memorydevices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks,e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto optical disks; andCD ROM and DVD-ROM disks.

To provide for interaction with a user, embodiments of the subjectmatter described in this specification can be implemented on a computerhaving a display device, e.g., a CRT (cathode ray tube) or LCD (liquidcrystal display) monitor, for displaying information to the user and akeyboard and a pointing device, e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by whichthe user can provide input to the computer. Other kinds of devices canbe used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example,feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, e.g.,visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback; and input fromthe user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, ortactile input. In addition, a computer can interact with a user bysending documents to and receiving documents from a device that is usedby the user; for example, by sending web pages to a web browser on auser's device in response to requests received from the web browser.Also, a computer can interact with a user by sending text messages orother forms of message to a personal device, e.g., a smartphone that isrunning a messaging application, and receiving responsive messages fromthe user in return.

Data processing apparatus for implementing machine learning models canalso include, for example, special-purpose hardware accelerator unitsfor processing common and compute-intensive parts of machine learningtraining or production, i.e., inference, workloads.

Machine learning models can be implemented and deployed using a machinelearning framework, e.g., a TensorFlow framework, a Microsoft CognitiveToolkit framework, an Apache Singa framework, or an Apache MXNetframework.

Embodiments of the subject matter described in this specification can beimplemented in a computing system that includes a back end component,e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g.,an application server, or that includes a front end component, e.g., aclient computer having a graphical user interface, a web browser, or anapp through which a user can interact with an implementation of thesubject matter described in this specification, or any combination ofone or more such back end, middleware, or front end components. Thecomponents of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium ofdigital data communication, e.g., a communication network. Examples ofcommunication networks include a local area network (LAN) and a widearea network (WAN), e.g., the Internet.

The computing system can include clients and servers. A client andserver are generally remote from each other and typically interactthrough a communication network. The relationship of client and serverarises by virtue of computer programs running on the respectivecomputers and having a client-server relationship to each other. In someembodiments, a server transmits data, e.g., an HTML page, to a userdevice, e.g., for purposes of displaying data to and receiving userinput from a user interacting with the device, which acts as a client.Data generated at the user device, e.g., a result of the userinteraction, can be received at the server from the device.

While this specification contains many specific implementation details,these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of anyinvention or on the scope of what may be claimed, but rather asdescriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodimentsof particular inventions. Certain features that are described in thisspecification in the context of separate embodiments can also beimplemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, variousfeatures that are described in the context of a single embodiment canalso be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in anysuitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be describedabove as acting in certain combinations and even initially be claimed assuch, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some casesbe excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may bedirected to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.

Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings and recited inthe claims in a particular order, this should not be understood asrequiring that such operations be performed in the particular ordershown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations beperformed, to achieve desirable results. In certain circumstances,multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, theseparation of various system modules and components in the embodimentsdescribed above should not be understood as requiring such separation inall embodiments, and it should be understood that the described programcomponents and systems can generally be integrated together in a singlesoftware product or packaged into multiple software products.

Particular embodiments of the subject matter have been described. Otherembodiments are within the scope of the following claims. For example,the actions recited in the claims can be performed in a different orderand still achieve desirable results. As one example, the processesdepicted in the accompanying figures do not necessarily require theparticular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirableresults. In some cases, multitasking and parallel processing may beadvantageous.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer-implemented method, comprising:receiving an input that depicts an object; and processing the inputusing a neural network to generate an output that defines a convexrepresentation of the object, wherein the output comprises, for each ofa plurality of convex elements, respective parameters that define aposition of the convex element in the convex representation of theobject, wherein each of the convex elements is defined by a plurality ofhalfspaces, and wherein the respective parameters comprise, for each ofthe halfspaces: parameters that define a normal n_(h) and an offsetd_(h) such that H_(h)=n_(h)·x+d_(h) is a signed distance from a point xto the h-th halfspace defined with the normal n_(h) and the offsetd_(h).
 2. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the neuralnetwork comprises: an encoder neural network that is configured toreceive the input and to generate a low-dimensional latentrepresentation of the input, and a decoder neural network that isconfigured to generate the output that defines the convex representationof the object.
 3. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, whereinfor each of the convex elements, the respective parameters comprise:parameters that define an indicator function for the convex element. 4.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the respectiveparameters further comprise, for each of the plurality of convexelements, pose parameters T_(k) that define an affine transformationthat transforms a point from world coordinates to local coordinates ofthe k-th convex element.
 5. The computer-implemented method of claim 1,wherein the input is one of an image of the object, a point cloud of theobject, or a voxel grid of the object.
 6. The computer-implementedmethod of claim 1, further comprising: using the convex representationof the object in applications where an explicit representation of asurface is required.
 7. A method of training a neural network thatreceives an input that depicts an object and processes the input togenerate an output that defines a convex representation of the object,wherein the output comprises, for each of a plurality of convexelements, respective parameters that define a position of the convexelement in the convex representation of the object, the methodcomprising: receiving a training input that depicts an object;processing the training input using the neural network to generate atraining output that defines a convex representation of the object;sampling a plurality of points on the training input; for each sampledpoint, generating a ground truth indicator value using the traininginput, and a training indicator value using the convex representation ofthe object, wherein the ground truth indicator value determines whetherthe sampled point lies inside the object, and wherein the trainingindicator value determines whether the sampled point lies inside theconvex representation of the object; and determining an update to valuesof parameters of the neural network by minimizing a loss function thatdepends on a distance between the ground truth indicator value and thetraining indicator value.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the lossfunction further comprises a decomposition loss that measures overlapbetween the plurality of convex elements.
 9. The method of claim 7,wherein each of the convex elements is defined by a plurality ofhalfspaces, and wherein the respective parameters comprise, for each ofthe halfspaces, parameters that define a normal n_(h), and an offsetd_(h).
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the loss function furthercomprises a unique parameterization loss that measures, for each of theplurality of convex elements, magnitudes of offsets d_(h) for each ofthe halfspaces.
 11. The method of claim 7, wherein the loss functionfurther comprises a guidance loss that ensures each convex element isresponsible for representing a certain amount of interior samples.
 12. Asystem comprising: one or more computers and one or more storage devicesstoring instructions that are operable, when executed by the one or morecomputers, to cause the one or more computers to perform operationscomprising: receiving an input that depicts an object; and processingthe input using a neural network to generate an output that defines aconvex representation of the object, wherein the output comprises, foreach of a plurality of convex elements, respective parameters thatdefine a position of the convex element in the convex representation ofthe object, wherein each of the convex elements is defined by aplurality of halfspaces, and wherein the respective parameters comprise,for each of the halfspaces: parameters that define a normal n_(h) and anoffset d_(h) such that H_(h)=n_(h)·x+d_(h) is a signed distance from apoint x to the h-th halfspace defined with the normal n_(h) and theoffset d_(h).
 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the neural networkcomprises: an encoder neural network that is configured to receive theinput and to generate a low-dimensional latent representation of theinput, and a decoder neural network that is configured to generate theoutput that defines the convex representation of the object.
 14. Thesystem of claim 12, wherein for each of the convex elements, therespective parameters comprise: parameters that define an indicatorfunction for the convex element.
 15. The system of claim 12, wherein therespective parameters further comprise, for each of the plurality ofconvex elements, pose parameters T_(k) that define an affinetransformation that transforms a point x from world coordinates to localcoordinates of the k-th convex element.
 16. The system of claim 12,wherein the input is one of an image of the object, a point cloud of theobject, or a voxel grid of the object.
 17. The system of claim 12, theoperations further comprise: using the convex representation of theobject in applications where an explicit representation of a surface isrequired.
 18. A computer program product, encoded on one or morenon-transitory computer storage media, comprising instructions that whenexecuted by one or more computers cause the one or more computers toperform operations comprising: receiving an input that depicts anobject; and processing the input using a neural network to generate anoutput that defines a convex representation of the object, wherein theoutput comprises, for each of a plurality of convex elements, respectiveparameters that define a position of the convex element in the convexrepresentation of the object, wherein each of the convex elements isdefined by a plurality of halfspaces, and wherein the respectiveparameters comprise, for each of the halfspaces: parameters that definea normal n_(h) and an offset d_(h) that H_(h)=n_(h)·x+d_(h) is a signeddistance from a point x to the h-th halfspace defined with the normaln_(h) and the offset d_(h).
 19. A computer-implemented method,comprising: receiving an input that depicts an object; and processingthe input using a neural network to generate an output that defines aconvex representation of the object, wherein the output comprises, foreach of a plurality of convex elements, respective parameters thatdefine a position of the convex element in the convex representation ofthe object, wherein the respective parameters comprise, for each of theplurality of convex elements, pose parameters T_(k) that define anaffine transformation that transforms a point x from world coordinatesto local coordinates of the k-th convex element.
 20. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 19, wherein the neural networkcomprises: an encoder neural network that is configured to receive theinput and to generate a low-dimensional latent representation of theinput, and a decoder neural network that is configured to generate theoutput that defines the convex representation of the object.
 21. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 19, wherein for each of the convexelements, the respective parameters comprise: parameters that define anindicator function for the convex element.
 22. The computer-implementedmethod of claim 19, wherein each of the convex elements is defined by aplurality of halfspaces, and wherein the respective parameters comprise,for each of the halfspaces: parameters that define a normal n_(h) and anoffset d_(h) such that H_(h)=n_(h)·x+d_(h) is a signed distance from apoint x to the h-th halfspace defined with the normal n_(h) and theoffset d_(h).
 23. The computer-implemented method of claim 19, whereinthe input is one of an image of the object, a point cloud of the object,or a voxel grid of the object.
 24. The computer-implemented method ofclaim 1, further comprising: using the convex representation of theobject in applications where an explicit representation of a surface isrequired.
 25. A system comprising: one or more computers and one or morestorage devices storing instructions that are operable, when executed bythe one or more computers, to cause the one or more computers to performoperations comprising: receiving an input that depicts an object; andprocessing the input using a neural network to generate an output thatdefines a convex representation of the object, wherein the outputcomprises, for each of a plurality of convex elements, respectiveparameters that define a position of the convex element in the convexrepresentation of the object, wherein the respective parameterscomprise, for each of the plurality of convex elements, pose parametersT_(k) that define an affine transformation that transforms a point xfrom world coordinates to local coordinates of the k-th convex element.26. The system of claim 25, wherein the neural network comprises: anencoder neural network that is configured to receive the input and togenerate a low-dimensional latent representation of the input, and adecoder neural network that is configured to generate the output thatdefines the convex representation of the object.
 27. The system of claim25, wherein for each of the convex elements, the respective parameterscomprise: parameters that define an indicator function for the convexelement.
 28. The system of claim 25, wherein each of the convex elementsis defined by a plurality of halfspaces, and wherein the respectiveparameters comprise, for each of the halfspaces: parameters that definea normal n_(h) and an offset d_(h) such that H_(h)=n_(h)·x+d_(h) is asigned distance from a point x to the h-th halfspace defined with thenormal n_(h) and the offset d_(h).
 29. The system of claim 25, whereinthe input is one of an image of the object, a point cloud of the object,or a voxel grid of the object.
 30. The system of claim 25, theoperations further comprise: using the convex representation of theobject in applications where an explicit representation of a surface isrequired.
 31. A computer program product, encoded on one or morenon-transitory computer storage media, comprising instructions that whenexecuted by one or more computers cause the one or more computers toperform operations comprising: receiving an input that depicts anobject; and processing the input using a neural network to generate anoutput that defines a convex representation of the object, wherein theoutput comprises, for each of a plurality of convex elements, respectiveparameters that define a position of the convex element in the convexrepresentation of the object, wherein the respective parameterscomprise, for each of the plurality of convex elements, pose parametersT_(k) that define an affine transformation that transforms a point fromworld coordinates to local coordinates of the k-th convex element.